The mirror has been in existence almost as long as humankind.
By legend, the first mirror was formed in the ancient Himalayas when a little brook tarried to rest itself, as if to ponder and reflect upon its course. Thereby, in time, the first woman walked and looking down into the pool was surprised by&#;another girl!&#;which she slowly came to understand as a reflection of herself.
Still waters and mythology aside, the mirror as object is called &#;one of mankind&#;s most consistent civilizers,&#; bringing a sense of personal reflection and comparative identity. (Passing In Review, , Hart Mirror Plate Company). Mirror is central to every aspect of human history&#;art, archaeology, medicine, psychology, philosophy, technology, optics&#;and of course, style.
The word mirror derives from the French &#;mirour,&#; from the Latin &#;mirari&#;&#;to admire. (The Romans themselves, however, used the word &#;speculum,&#; from &#;specere&#;&#;to look, or behold.)
METAL MIRRORS &#; Mirrors were used by the ancient Egyptians as early as c.BC. These were made of polished bronze shaped into flat round discs&#;in representation of the sun-god Re&#;with handles of wood, metal or ivory. Likewise, in China, an unearthed cast bronze mirror has been dated as early as BCE.
By the time of Seneca the younger (4BC &#;65), a small number of Greek mirrors were large enough to reflect a person&#;s entire figure. Most remained quite small&#;less than 12 inches diameter, constructed with either a stand-up handle, an eyelet for hanging, or a protective boxed metal cover for easily carrying on one&#;s person (the early cosmetic compact mirror!).
Most were ornamented with images of the gods&#;especially, Pan, god of the wild; Eros, god of desire; and Aphrodite, godess of beauty and love. (And if that doesn&#;t prompt you to ponder how some things never change, then the history of the mirror may not be for you.)
All were considered among the most precious objects in antiquity. As Seneca recorded, &#;For a single one of these mirrors of chiseled silver or gold, inlaid with gems, women are capable of spending an amount equal to the dowry the State once offered to poor generals&#; daughters!&#;
In Japan, bronze mirrors (imported from China c.300AD) were associated with Amaterasu, sun goddess and imperial ancestor&#;who, at the dawn of time, ordered her grandson to descend from heaven to rule over Japan and gave him a sacred mirror providing him and his successors perpetual access to the divine sun.
Throughtout medieval Japan, mirrors were considered sacred objects&#;used not only in rarefied imperial ritual and display but also to ward off evil spirts and, when placed in Shinto shrines, to speak with the gods.
As the Roman Empire ascended, mirror-making appeared in every land where Romans settled&#;including England. Then, upon the the collapse of cultures and economies during what used to be called The Dark Ages (a perfect mirror metaphor)&#;e.g., the Early Middle Ages, mirror-making appears to have died out. Few artifacts exisit from c. 5&#;10AD.
GLASS MIRRORS &#; A few very small, convex glass mirrors have been found in archaeological digs dating to the 3rd century. (Though glassblowing was well developed in the earliest recorded Egyptian cultures, it was largely confined to the making of vessels.)
Early glass mirrors were made of glass tiles cut from blown glass forms&#;thus always slightly curved, and always slightly colored, as the chemistry of clear glass manufacture remained unknown. These glass tiles were then affixed over still-hot, carefully sized, cast lead forms, with a thin layer of polished metal sheeting between the two. It was a belabored and imprecise process, resulting in mirrors of dim reflection.
As attributed to Paul the apostle, &#;For now we see through a glass, darkly.&#;
Around 500 AD, man began to create somewhat clearer and more reflective glass mirrors using silver-mercury amalgams. Examples of such have been found in China dated as early as c.500AD. But another thousand years would pass before silvery-mercury amalgam processes became more efficient&#;and less deadly, mercury being one of the most toxic elements on planet Earth.
Enlightment in the Age of Reason, science, culture, philosophy&#;and mirror-making, did not arrive in an instant. But sometime around the 12th century, mirror-makers began to measurably improve their craft. A guild of mirror makers&#;the first recorded, was formed in the city of Nuremberg in , soon followed by a guild in the city of Venice.
THE LOOKING GLASS &#; As guildsmen investigated tin, silver, and mercury amalgams, they also experimented with a different material: rock crystal. Extremely rare and as costly as gemstones, these wall-hung crystal mirrors were highly prized by admirers far and wide, including Francis I, ruler of Mantua -, who had them installed in the Castle of San Giorgio.
The term &#;looking glass&#; may have come into the language as a means of distinguishing these rock crystal wall-hung mirrors from the smaller metal hand-held mirrors.
Meanwhile, Venetian guildsmen perfected the making of mirrors with glass/mercury/tin, e.g. mercury glass, with ornate frames and beveled edges. These famed mirrors were highly sought after and, along with Venetian lace, turned Venice into Europe&#;s leading exporter&#;an economic supremacy the city would maintain for more than 150 years.
So important was mirror-making to the economy of Venice that guildsmen were sworn to uphold trade secrets upon penalty of death. In the rare instance in which a guildsman was permitted to travel outside the city, his family was held in hostage, and if the traveler failed to return home, forfeited their lives.
Glass mirrors were now essential to an aristocratic lady&#;s toilette, and perhaps her most prized possession. As noted by one 17th century countess de Fiesque: &#;I had a nasty piece of land that brought in nothing but wheat; I sold it and in return I got this beautiful mirror. Did I not work wonders&#;some wheat for this beautiful mirror?&#; (source: &#;The Mirror: A History&#;)
Profit begets competition. In , Jean-Baptiste Colbert&#;appealing to Louis XIV for economic reform and endeavoring to keep in France the 100,000 crowns going out yearly to Italy for mirrors&#;managed to import 20 (living) Venetian glass workers into France. Established by royal initiative, this Manufacture des Glaces (at the Saint-Gobain factory) would greatly expand the production of mirrors.
Louis the Sun King, and Saint-Gobain factory, would make their mark on history through emblematic artistic achievements like &#;La Grande Galerie,&#; The Hall of Mirrors, in Chateau de Versailles. Designed by Mansart and begun in , this grand hall&#;with 17 mirror-clad arches, encompassing 357 mirrors, reflecting 17 opposing arcade windows&#;is acknowledged as &#;one of the most beautiful achievements of classical 18th century French art.&#;
SPEAKING OF ART &#; Glass mirror not only revolutionized how we see ourselves and how we magnify light, but also how artists see and depict the world. Mirror is cited as critical to the discovery of linear perspective&#;making what is flat (a painting) appear to be in relief (real life)&#; by Renaissance artists.
In his &#;Notebooks,&#; Leonardo da Vinci called the mirror &#;the master of painters,&#; essential for depicting the power, relief, and vividness which objects and scenes actually possess. &#;When you wish to see whether your whole picture accords with what you have portrayed from nature,&#; he wrote, &#;take a mirror and reflect the actual object in it. Compare what is reflected with your painting.&#;
Through the 18th century, technical and economic difficulties persisted in the manufacture of clear glass. Metal mirrors remained the standard in everyday households, oiled paper the common window covering. (See the Library&#;s complete volumes of Diderot&#;s Encyclopedie for info on chassissiers, professionals who covered windows with paper.)
In the nascent United States of America, looking glasses, most imported from England, were expensive. &#;The esteem in which looking glasses were held can be measured by their high valuation in household inventories and a repeated mention in wills as a family&#;s most cherished possession,&#; explains Charles Sutton, 18th century design authority and past president of the Furniture Library.
NEOCLASSIC STYLE MIRRORS &#; Robert Adam, progenitor of Neoclassicism, brought a new, light, airy, architectural approach to decorative arts, and &#;Adam Brothers style&#; quickly permeated Europe and the U.S. Adam designed numerous looking glasses, many still in existence, and scholars describe Adam as being &#;at his best when designing looking glasses&#; (such as Adam&#;s filigree bordered mirror etchings accompanying this post).
Distinct looking glass styles are associated with important 18th century cabinetmakers and designers: Thomas Chippendale, George Hepplewhite, and Thomas Sheraton. Chippendale&#;s mirrors were intricate with &#;ears&#; and small fretted scrolls; oval looking glasses were attributed to Hepplewhite; and convex mirrors associated with Sheraton. (You may peruse the complete original works of these iconic designers in the Furniture Library&#;s rare books room.)
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BEYOND BEAUTY &#; Mirror not only brings utility and beauty to living spaces, it also provides an artistic medium for expressing thought and feeling.
Verner Panton (-), master of the fluid and futuristic who brought the Pop aesthetic to furniture and interiors, made great use of mirrors in his fantastical &#;total environments&#;&#;inspiring spatial designers worldwide.
From his &#;Cloud Gate&#; sculptures like that in Chicago&#;s Millenium Park to installations worldwide, artist Sir Anish Kapoor is employing mirror to play with our perceptions of body and space. Of his exhibition at Barbara Gladstone&#;s NYC gallery, Anne Christensen said Kappor is &#;trying to transform your thinking and encourage you to see things from a different perspective.&#;
One can hardly escape wondering how to incorporate mirror at home to stimulate our own thinking. But, in this moment, we already find ourselves constantly observed&#;from smartphone selfie to uncontrollable publishings worldwide&#;and thus reduced from a being to an appearance, an object. All the while, desperately seeking meaningful identity.
And so, what do we&#;you and I&#;feel and think when we gaze into the looking glass? Are the images we see there to be admired?
Answers to come&#; upon further reflection.
The history of mirrors starts in the III Century B.C. Most ancient mirrors were made from metal and had a round shape. The backside of the ancient mirrors was beautifully embellished with ornamentation. Mirrors were made from highly polished bronze and silver. The first glass mirrors were invented in I Century by Romans.
From ancient times special qualities had been given to mirrors, that no other object had. The Greek philosopher Socrates gave advice to young men to look at themselves in the mirror, and those who were handsome should focus their life on keeping their souls clean and stay away from the temptations of life that could take them on the wrong path. If a young man would find that he is not handsome, he should compensate for his look from his heart, and get known for doing a lot of good things.
In Medieval period glass mirrors completely disappeared, because during those times religious confessions stated that the devil is looking and watching the world from the opposite side of glass mirrors. Poor fashionable ladies had to use polished metal mirrors or special water bowls instead of glass mirrors.
Glass mirrors came back only in the 13th century. This time they were bent slightly outward. The method of attaching the tin to the flat surface of the glass wasn&#;t invented yet. Using available technology master glaziers poured hot tin into glass tubs, and then, after the tin was cold, they would break it into separate pieces.
Only three centuries later, Venetian masters invented a &#;flat mirror technique.&#; They figured out how to attach the tin to a flat glass surface. Venetian masters invented another trick. They created a special reflective mixture in which gold and bronze were added. Because of this &#;magical&#; mixture, all objects reflecting in the mirrors looked much more beautiful than in reality. The cost of one Venetian mirror then was comparable to the cost of the large naval ship.
In a city of Nuremberg (Germany) in the first mirror manufacturing plant was open. Mirrors were then aggressively integrated into all aspects of life. In the 16th century, mirrors became a part of mysterious rituals and witchcraft. Also, for 200 years, mirrors were used by Spanish and French spies for coding and decoding secret messages. This secret coding system was introduced in the 15th century by Leonardo da Vinci. The scriptures were coded in &#;mirror reflection,&#; and without the mirror, it was impossible to read the message.
Mirrors were part of another significant invention of the time &#; the periscope. The opportunity to discreetly spy on one&#;s enemy by using a system of interactive mirrors saved a lot of lives during wars. During the famous Thirty Year war, mirrors were used by all sides to blind the enemy during military actions with a bright reflection of sunlight. It was tough to aim when thousands of tiny mirrors blind your eyes.
Starting with the 12th century, no respectful lady left her house without a small mirror. Handheld mirrors and pears mirrors became must-have items for every woman. Ladies wore gold embellished mirrors on a chain around their neck or waist, inserted mirrors into the fens. Mirrors were treated just like precious jewelry and were encased in specially crafted exotic materials like a turtle shell or elephant bone frames. Some of the mirror&#;s frames were made from gold or silver with elegant miniature engravings.
In the 15th century, the Venetian Island of Murano became the center of glass making and was known as the &#;Isle of Glass.&#; They officially created the &#;Council of Ten&#; with a special mission of vigorously protecting the secrets of there glass making techniques. Masters glassmakers were secretly transported to the island of Murano undercover as firefighters. The &#;Council of Ten&#; generously supported glassmakers and at the same time kept them isolated from the rest of the world. The profits from the mirror making monopoly were too large to take any risks. European monarchs at whatever it cost tried to find out the Venetian glassmaking secrets. They accomplish this goal in the 17th century when Colbert (the minister of Ludwig XIV) bribed with gold three Murano masters and transported them into France.
venetian glass mirrors
The French happened to be good students, and very quickly they not only mastered Murano glass-making techniques but invented they&#;re own. While mirror making techniques used by Venetian masters was based on glassblowing, French masters started manufacturing mirrors using casting techniques based on pouring glass into the cast molds. The glass was poured directly from the dome into the perfectly smooth surface of the cast mold, and then, as the glass was cooling, it was rolled with the special rollers achieving a perfect consistency and smoothness of the material. Immediately after this invention, in Versailles, the construction of the Mirrors Gallery began. The Mirrors Gallery was 220 feet (73 meters) long and embellished with 306 huge mirrors.
On the end of the 16th century, following the high fusion style, French queen Maria De Medici decided to create for herself a Mirrored office. For this matter, 119 mirrors were purchased from Venice. Maybe because her purchase was so large, or for some other reason, Venetian masters created a special gift for the queen of France &#; a unique large mirror generously incrusted with precious stones. Till this day this mirror is preserved and kept in the Louvre in Paris.
Mirrors become popular valuable collectibles among royals. English King Hendry VIII and the King of France Francis I were the most known mirrors collectors of there time. Trying to catch up with kings, nobles in France had to have extravagant mirrors at any cost. There is a knowing fact that some of them had to sell one of their residents to purchase a single beautiful mirror. Mirrors were extremely costly. For example, one mirror cost more than Rafael&#;s painting of the same size.
In the 17th century Russia, mirrors were considered a sin. In the Orthodox Church in prohibited the possession of mirrors by its priests. From this time on a lot of superstitions surrounded mirrors. Those superstitions seem to us funny and naive, but back then people took it very seriously. Breaking a mirror, for example, was a sign of bad luck for seven years. That is why when a mirror was broken, the person who broke it should make apologies to the mirror for clumsiness, and had to carefully and respectfully bury it. Soldiers took mirrors-talismans to reflect away death.
Mirrors have had a long and colorful journey throughout history. In our days there is no home without a mirror. Mirrors have become part of our everyday routine, often unappreciated. We always should remember &#;reflect&#; and respect the historical aspects of mirrors and appreciate more not only mirror&#;s functionality but the incredible esthetical value of the mirrors.
mirrors
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